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3.3. Tectonics of Rifting and Drifting: Pangea Breakup

3.3.1. Rift Basin Architecture and Evolution

Roy W. Schlische & Martha Oliver Withjack
Department of Geological Sciences, Rutgers University, Piscataway,NJ 08854-8066 U.S.A.

Rift basins have been increasingly the focus of researchin tectonics, structural geology, and basin analysis. The reasons for thisinterest include: (1) Rift basins are found on all passive (Atlantic-type)continental margins and provide a record of the early stages of (super)continentalbreakup. (2) The architecture of these basins and the basin fill are stronglyinfluenced by the displacement geometry on the bounding normal fault systems(e.g., Gibson et al., 1989). Thus, aspects of the evolution of these faultsystems, including their nucleation, propagation and linkage, can be extractedfrom the sedimentary record. (3) Many modern and ancient extensional basinscontain lacustrine deposits (e.g., Katz, 1990) that are sensitive recordersof climate. Milankovitch cycles (e.g., Olsen and Kent, 1999) recorded inthese strata provide a quantitative test of the predictions of basin-fillingmodels (e.g., Schlische and Olsen, 1990) that can, in turn, be used toinfer aspects of crustal rheology during rifting (e.g., Contreras et al.,1997). (4) Many of the major petroleum provinces of the world are associatedwith rift basins (e.g., the North Sea basins, the Jeanne d'Arc basin, theBrazilian rift basins).

This section provides a brief overview of the rift basinsrelated to Pangean breakup, especially those along the central Atlanticmargin (e.g., Olsen, 1997). In particular, we examine (1) the structuralarchitecture of rift basins; (2) the interplay of tectonics, sediment supply,and climate in controlling the large-scale stratigraphy of rift basins;(3) how the sedimentary fill can be subdivided into tectonostratigraphicpackages that record continental rifting, initiation of seafloor spreading,basin inversion, and drifting; and (4) how coring can be used to answerfundamental questions related to these topics.

Structural Architecture
A typical rift basin is a fault-bounded feature knownas a half graben (Fig. 3.3.1.1a). In a cross section oriented perpendicularto the boundary fault (transverse section), the half graben has a triangulargeometry (Fig. 3.3.1.1b). The three sides of the triangle are the borderfault, the rift-onset unconformity between prerift and synrift rocks, andthe postrift unconformity between synrift and postrift rocks (or, for modernrifts, the present-day depositional surface). Within the triangular wedgeof synrift units, stratal boundaries rotate from being subparallel to therift-onset unconformity to being subparallel to the postrift unconformity.This fanning geometry, along with thickening of synrift units toward theboundary fault, are produced by syndepositional faulting. Core from theNewark basin confirms the thickening relationships (see Section 3.3.2).Synrift strata commonly onlap prerift rocks. In a cross section orientedparallel to the boundary fault (longitudinal section), the basin has asynclinal geometry (Fig. 3.3.1.1c), although more complicated geometriesare associated with segmented boundary fault systems (e.g., Schlische,1993; Schlische and Anders, 1996; Morley, 1999).
Figure 3.3.1.1. Geometry of a simple half graben. (a) Map-viewgeometry. (b) Geometry along a cross section oriented perpendicular tothe boundary fault, showing wedge-shaped basin in which synrift strataexhibit a fanning geometry, thicken toward the boundary fault, and onlapprerift rocks. (c) Geometry along a cross section oriented parallel tothe boundary fault, showing syncline-shaped basin in which synrift stratathin away from the center of the basin and onlap prerift rocks.
The half-graben geometry described above is directly controlledby the deformation (displacement) field surrounding the boundary faultsystem (Gibson et al., 1989; Schlische, 1991, 1995; Schlische and Anders,1996; Contreras et al. 1997). In a gross sense, displacement is greatestat the center of the fault and decreases to zero at the fault tips (Fig.3.3.1.2a); this produces the syncline-shaped basin in longitudinal section.In traverse section, the displacement of an initially horizontal surfacethat intersects the fault is greatest at the fault itself and decreaseswith distance away from the fault. This produces footwall uplift and hanging-wallsubsidence, the latter of which creates the sedimentary basin (Fig. 3.3.1.2b).However, this geometry is affected by fault propagation and forced folding(e.g., Withjack et al., 1990; Gawthorpe et al., 1997). As displacementaccumulates on the boundary fault, the basin deepens through time. Becausethe width of the hanging-wall deflection increases with increasing faultdisplacement (Barnett et al., 1987), the basin widens through time. Becausethe length of the fault increases with increasing displacement (e.g., Cowie,1998), the basin lengthens through time. The growth of the basin throughtime produces progressive onlap of synrift strata on prerift rocks (Fig.3.3.1.3).
Figure 3.3.1.2. Fault-displacement geometry controls the first-ordergeometry of a half graben. (a) Perspective diagram before (left) and afterfaulting showing how normal faulting uplifts the footwall block and producessubsidence in the hanging-wall block. The yellow dashed line shows theouter limit of hanging-wall subsidence and marks the edge of the basin.Displacement is a maximum at the center of the fault (only the righthalf of the fault is shown) and decreases toward the fault tip. (b) Traversesection before faulting (left) and after faulting and sedimentation showingfootwall uplift and hanging-wall subsidence. The latter produces a wedge-shapedbasin (half graben).
Figure 3.3.1.3. Simple filling model for a growing half-grabenbasin shown in map view (stages 1-4), longitudinal cross section (stages1-5), and transverse cross section (stages 1-4). Dashed line representslake level. The relationship between capacity and sediment supply determineswhether sedimentation is fluvial or lacustrine. For lacustrine sedimentation,the relationship between water volume and excess capacity determines thelake depth. Modified from Schlische and Anders (1996).
The simple structural architecture described above maybe complicated by basin inversion, in which a contractional phase followsthe extensional phase (e.g., Buchanan and Buchanan, 1995). Typical inversionstructures include normal faults reactivated as reverse faults, newly formedreverse and thrust faults, and folds (Fig. 3.3.1.4, 3.3.1.5). Basin inversionoccurs in a variety of tectonic environments (e.g., Buchanan and Buchanan,1995), including several passive margins related to the breakup of Pangea(e.g., Doré and Lundin, 1996; Vagnes et al., 1998; Withjack et al.,1995, 1998; Hill et al., 1995; Withjack & Eisenstadt, 1999). The causesof inversion on these passive margins is not well understood. Section 4.2.1describes how coring, in combination with other methods, may help furtherour understanding of basin inversion on passive margins.
Figure 3.3.1.4. Examples of positive inversion structures.a) Cross section across part of Sunda arc. During inversion, normalfaults became reverse faults, producing synclines and anticlines with harpoongeometries (after Letouzey, 1990). b) Interpreted line drawings (with3:1 and 1:1 vertical exaggeration) of AGSO Line 110-12 from Exmouth sub-basin,NW Shelf Australia (after Withjack & Eisenstadt, 1999). DuringMiocene inversion, deep-seated normal faults became reverse faults. In response, gentle monoclines formed in the shallow, postrift strata.

Figure 3.3.1.5. Experimental models of inversion structures. Cross sections through three clay models showing development of inversionstructures (after Eisenstadt and Withjack, 1995). In each model,a clay layer (with colored sub-layers) covered two overlapping metal plates. Movement of the lower plate created extension or shortening. Thinclay layers are prerift; thick clay layers are synrift; top-most layeris postrift and pre-inversion. Top section shows model with extension andno shortening; a half graben containing very gently dipping synrift unitsis present. The middle section shows model with extension followed by minorshortening; a subtle anticline has formed in the half graben, and is associatedwith minor steepening of the dip of synrift layers. Bottom section showsmodel with extension followed by major shortening. The anticline in thehalf graben is more prominent, and is associated with significant steepeningof the dip of synrift strata. New reverse faults have formed in the preriftlayers. Although the inversion is obvious in this model, erosion of materialdown to the level of the red line would remove the most obvious evidenceof inversion in the half graben. Furthermore, the prominent reverse faultscutting the prerift units could be interpreted to indicate prerift contractionaldeformation, as is common in the rift zones related to the breakup of Pangea.

Stratigraphic Architecture

Numerous non-marine rift basins of varied geography andgeologic age share a remarkably similar stratigraphic architecture (Lambiase,1990; Schlische and Olsen, 1990; Fig. 3.3.1.6). Known as a tripartite stratigraphy,the section begins with basin-wide fluvial deposits overlain by a relativelyabrupt deepening-upward lacustrine succession overlain by a gradual shallowing-upwardlacustrine and fluvial succession. The key to understanding the significanceof this tripartite stratigraphy rests in the relationships among basincapacity and sediment and water supply (Schlische and Olsen, 1990; Carrolland Bohacs, 1999). Tectonics creates accommodation space or basin capacity.Sediment supply determines how much of that basin capacity is filled andwhether or not lake systems are possible (Figure 3.3.1.7). In general,fluvial deposition results when sediment supply exceeds capacity, and lacustrinedeposition results when capacity exceeds sediment supply.
Figure 3.3.1.6. Stratigraphic architecture of Triassic-Jurassicrift basins of eastern North America. For tectonostratigraphic (TS) packageIII, nearly all basins exhibit all or part of a tripartite stratigraphy:1, basal fluvial deposits; 2, 'deeper-water' lacustrine deposits; 3, 'shallow-water'lacustrine and fluvial deposits. The southern basins do not contain TS-IV.TS-I is only recognized in the Fundy basin and may or may not be a synriftdeposit. Where TS-II is recognized, a significant unconformity (in termsof missing time) commonly separates it from TS-III. Modified from Olsen(1997), Olsen et al. (2000), and Schlische (2000).
Figure 3.3.1.7. [BELOW] Relationships among basincapacity, sediment supply, and volume of water determine the large-scaledepositional environments of terrestrial rift basins. In example 1, basin-widefluvial sedimentation is predicted. In example 2, shallow-water lacustrinesedimentation is predicted. For the basin capacity and available sedimentsupply shown in this example, no very deep lakes are possible because theexcess capacity of the basin (and thus lake depth) is limited. Thus, underthese conditions, climate is a relatively unimportant control on lake depth.In example 3, deep-water lacustrine sedimentation is predicted.
The relationships shown in Figure 3.3.1.7 allow us tointerpret the large-scale stratigraphic transitions observed in many non-marinerift basins. The fluvial-lacustrine transition may result from an increasein basin capacity and/or a decrease in sediment supply. The shallow-waterlacustrine to deep-water lacustrine transition may result from an increasein basin capacity, a decrease in sediment-supply, and/or increase in theavailable volume of water. The deep-water lacustrine to shallow-water lacustrinetransition may result from a decrease or an increase in basin capacity(depending on the geometry of the basin's excess capacity), an increasein the sediment supply, and/or decrease in the available volume of water.How do we go about choosing the more likely interpretation? Interestingly,all of the major stratigraphic transitions can be explained by an increasein basin capacity, for which a simple basin-filling model is shown in Figure3.3.1.3. Other basin filling models are described by Lambiase (1990), Smoot(1991), and Lambiase and Bosworth (1995). As discussed in Section 3.3.3,long cores from rift basins, combined with basin modeling (e.g., Contreraset al., 1997) and seismic reflection data (e.g., Morley, 1999), are requiredto test the predictions of these basin-filling models.
Figure 3.3.1.8. Idealized rift basin showing unconformity-boundedtectonostratigraphic packages. Thin black lines represent stratal truncationbeneath unconformities; red half-arrows represent onlaps. In eastern NorthAmerica, TS-I may not be a synrift deposit, and thus the geometry shownhere would be incorrect. TS-II is much more areally restricted and morewedge-shaped than TS-III. The transition between TS-III and TS-IV is likelyrelated to an increase in extension rate. An offset coring technique (verticalorange lines), as used in the Newark basin coring project, does not sampleTS-I and most of TS-II. A deep core (vertical yellow line) is necessaryto recover TS-I and TS-II. Modified from Olsen (1997).

Tectonostratigraphic Packages and Basin Evolution

Olsen (1997) subdivided the synrift strata of centralAtlantic margin rift basins into four tectonostratigraphic (TS) packages(Fig. 3.3.1.6, 3.3.1.8). An individual TS package consists of all or partof a tripartite stratigraphic succession, is separated from other packagesby unconformities or correlative conformities, and generally has a differentclimatic milieu compared to other TS packages. TS-I is a Permian depositthat may or may not be synrift, whereas TS-II, TS-III, and TS-IV are LateTriassic and Early Jurassic synrift deposits (Olsen et al., 2000). The unconformities between TS-I, TS-II, and TS-III represent significantgeologic time. However, it is not yet clear if these unconformities arerelated to regional tectonic changes (e.g., pulsed extension) (Olsen, 1997)or to relatively local processes such as strain localization (a changefrom distributed extension on lots of small faults to extension on a fewlarge ones; e.g., Gupta et al., 1998) (Fig. 3.3.1.9). Given their geometryand location in the rift basin, TS-I and TS-II can generally only be sampledthrough deep coring and not the relatively shallow offset coring utilizedin the Newark basin (Section 3.3.3). The rift-onset unconformity betweenprerift rocks and various synrift units should not be taken as evidenceof regional uplift preceding rifting; rather, it more likely reflects erosionand non-deposition occurring over a topographically elevated region resultingfrom the assembly of Pangea.
Figure 3.3.1.9. Stages in the evolution of a rift basin. (a)Early rifting associated with several minor, relatively isolated normalfaults. (b) Mature rifting with through-going boundary fault zone, widespreaddeposition, and footwall uplift and erosion.

TS-III and TS-IV were deposited in much larger basinsor subbasins than was TS-II, and the unconformity between them is smallto non-existent (Olsen, 1997). TS-IV includes the widespread CAMP basaltsthat were erupted in a geologically short interval at ~202 Ma (e.g., Olsenet al., 1996; Olsen, 1999) (The CAMP basalts comprise a large-igneous provinceor L.I.P.; see Section 3.1.3). Significantly, TS-IV is absent in all ofthe southern basins of the central Atlantic margin. As discussed more fullyin Withjack et al. (1998), TS-IV was probably never deposited in this region,indicating that synrift subsidence had ceased prior to TS-IV time. [A postriftbasalt sequence, which may or may not be the same age as CAMP, is presentin the southern region and plausibly can be connected to a seaward-dippingreflector sequence at the continental margin (Oh et al., 1995). The temporaland spatial relationships of these igneous rocks is a critical coring target;see sections 4.2.1 and 4.2.2.] Also significantly, basin inversion in thesouthern basins occurred shortly prior to and during TS-IV time, whileinversion in the northern basins occurred after TS-IV time. (During TS-IVtime, the northern basins underwent accelerated subsidence; see Figure3.3.2.7). Thus, the end of rifting, the initation of inversion, and probablythe initiation of seafloor spreading are diachronous along the centralAtlantic margin (i.e., during earliest Jurassic time in the southeasternUnited States and Early to Middle Jurassic time in the northeastern UnitedStates and Maritime Canada) (Withjack et al., 1998). Coring, field analysis,and seismic-reflection profiles of synrift and immediately overlying postriftdeposits and the structures formed in them, are necessary to clarify theimportant events occurring at the rift-drift transition.

The inferred diachronous initiation of seafloor spreadingalong the present-day margin of the central North America Ocean is partof larger trend that reflects the progressive dismemberment of Pangea. As the North Atlantic Ocean continued to develop, seafloor spreading propagatednorthward. For example, seafloor spreading between the Grand Banksand southwestern Europe began during the Early Cretaceous (e.g., Srivastavaand Tapscott, 1986); seafloor spreading between Labrador and western Greenlandbegan during the early Tertiary (anomaly 27N) (e.g., Chalmers, et al.,1993); whereas seafloor spreading between eastern Greenland and northwesternEurope began slightly later during the early Tertiary (anomaly 24R) (e.g.,Talwani and Eldholm, 1977; Hinz et al., 1993).

References:

Barnett, J. A. M., Mortimer, J., Rippon, J. H., Walsh, J. J., and Watterson,J., 1987, Displacement geometry in the volume containing a single normalfault: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 71, p.925-937.

Buchanan, J. G., and Buchanan, P. G., eds., 1995, Basin Inversion: GeologicalSociety of London Special Publication 88, 596 p.
Carroll, A.R., and Bohacs, K.M., 1999, Stratigraphic classificationof ancient lakes: Balancing tectonic and climatic controls: Geology, v.27, p. 99-102.

Chalmers, J. A., Pulvertaft, C. R., Christiansen, F. G., Laresen, H.C.,Laursen, K. H., and Ottesen, T. G., 1993, The southern West Greenlandcontinental margin: Rifting history, basin development, and petroleum potential,in Parker, J. R., ed., Petroleum Geology of Northwest Europe, Proceedingsof the 4th Conference: Geological Society of London, v. 2, p. 915-931.

Contreras, J., Scholz, C. H., King, G. C. P., 1997, A general modelof rift basin evolution: constraints of first order stratigraphic observations:Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 102, p. 7673-7690.

Cowie, P. A., 1998, Normal fault growth in three-dimensions in continentaland oceanic crust, in Faulting and Magmatism at Mid-Ocean Ridges: GeophysicalMonograph 106, American Geophysical Union, p. 325-348.

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Eisenstadt, G., and Withjack, M. O., 1995, Estimating inversion: resultsfrom clay models, in Buchanan, J. G., and Buchanan, P. G., eds., 1995,Basin Inversion: Geological Society of London Special Publication 88, p.119-136.

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Hinz, K., Eldholm, O., Block, M., and Skogseid, J., 1993, Evolutionof North Atlantic volcanic continental margins, in Parker, J. R., ed.,Petroleum Geology of Northwest Europe, Proceedings of the 4th Conference:Geological Society of London, v. 2, p. 901-913.

Katz, B. J., ed., 1990, Lacustrine basin exploration--case studies andmodern analogs: AAPG Memoir 50, 340 p.
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Lambiase, J. J., and Bosworth, W., 1995, Structural controls on sedimentationin continental rifts, in Lambiase, J.J., ed., Hydrocarbon habitat in riftbasins: Geological Society Special Publication 80, p. 117-144.

Morley, C. K., 1999, Patterns of displacement along large normal faults:Implications for basin evolution and fault propagation, based on examplesfrom East Africa: AAPG Bulletin, v. 83, p. 613-634.

Oh, J., Austin, J. A., Jr., Phillips, J. D., Coffin, M. F., and Stoffa,P. L., 1995, Seaward-dipping reflectors offshore the southeastern UnitedStates: Seismic evidence for extensive volcanism accompanying sequentialformation of the Carolina trough and Blake Plateau basin: Geology, v. 23,p. 9-12.

Olsen, P. E., Schlische, R. W., and Fedosh, M. S., 1996, 580 kyr durationof the Early Jurassic flood basalt event in eastern North America estimatedusing Milankovitch cyclostratigraphy, in Morales, M., ed., The ContinentalJurassic: Museum of Northern Arizona Bulletin 60, p. 11-22.

Olsen, P. E., 1997, Stratigraphic record of the early Mesozoic breakupof Pangea in the Laurasia-Gondwana rift system: Annual Reviews of Earthand Planetary Science, v. 25, p. 337-401.

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Olsen, P. E., and Kent, D. V., 1999, Long-period Milankovitch cyclesfrom the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic of eastern North America andtheir implications for the calibration of the early Mesozoic time scaleand the long-term behavior of the planets. Transactions, Royal Societyof London, Series A, v. 357, p. 1761-1786.

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Schlische, R. W., 2000, Progress in understanding the structural geology,basin evolution, and tectonic history of the eastern North American riftsystem, in LeTourneau, P.M., and Olsen, P.E., eds., Aspects of Triassic-JurassicRift Basin Geoscience: New York, Columbia University Press, in press.

Schlische, R. W., and Anders, M. H., 1996, Stratigraphic effects andtectonic implications of the growth of normal faults and extensional basins,in Beratan, K. K., ed., Reconstructing the Structural History of Basinand Range Extension Using Sedimentology and Stratigraphy: GSA Special Paper303, p. 183-203.

Schlische, R. W., and Olsen, P. E., 1990, Quantitative filling modelfor continental extensional basins with applications to early Mesozoicrifts of eastern North America: Journal of Geology, v. 98, p. 135-155.

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Srivastava, S. P., and Tapscott, C. R., 1986, Plate kinematics of theNorth Atlantic, in Vogt, P. R., and Tucholke, B. E., eds., The Geologyof North America, v. M., The Western North Atlantic Region: GeologicalSociety of America, p. 379-404.

Talwani, M., and Eldholm, O., 1977, Evolution of the Norwegian-GreenlandSea: GSA Bulletin, v. 88, p. 969-999.

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Vågnes, E., Gabrielsen, R. H., and Haremo, P., 1998, Late Cretaceous-Cenozoicintraplate contractional deformation at the Norwegian continental shelf:timing, magnitude and regional implications: Tectonophysics, v. 300,p. 29-46.

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Withjack, M.O., Schlische, R.W., and Olsen, P.E., 1998, Diachronousrifting, drifting, and inversion on the passive margin of central easternNorth America: An analog for other passive margins: AAPG Bulletin, v. 82,p. 817-835.

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